⚫️ FINDING OUT YOU ARE ON AN ISLAND “Meanwhile war had again broken out in Britain, and Gnaeus Julius Agricola overran the whole of the enemy's territory there. He was the first of the Romans whom we know to discover the fact that Britain is surrounded by water. It seems that some soldiers rebelled, and after slaying the centurions and a military tribune took refuge in boats, in which they put out to sea and sailed round the western portion of the country just as the wind and the waves chanced to carry them; and without realizing it, since they approached from the opposite direction, they put in at the camps on the first side again. Thereupon Agricola sent others to attempt the voyage around Britain, and learned from them, too, that it was an island.” Cassius Dio

🟡 ARCHIMEDES OF SYRACUSE During the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic laid siege to the Greek city of Syracuse. To defend his homeland, the renowned mathematician and inventor Archimedes devised a series of ingenious war machines. These included the "Claw of Archimedes," a crane-like device that could lift Roman ships out of the water and either drop them or swing them against the rocks. Powerful catapults and ballistae launched projectiles at the Roman soldiers and ships, inflicting heavy casualties. While the existence of a "heat ray" – a system of mirrors to focus sunlight onto Roman ships – remains debated, it has entered into legend. These defenses proved highly effective, stalling the Roman advance for a considerable period. Syracuse eventually fell to the Romans in 212 BC. Some accounts suggest Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier while engrossed in a mathematical problem, while others claim he was murdered despite orders from the Roman general Marcellus to spare his life.

🟤 FOOD PRESERVATION Salting was a common practice for meats, fish, and even eggs, drawing moisture out and inhibiting bacterial growth. Drying, whether in the sun or over fires, removed moisture from fruits, vegetables, and meats, preventing spoilage. Smoking not only dried meat but also infused it with flavor. Pickling in vinegar or brine created an acidic environment that hindered bacterial growth. Honey, used as both a sweetener and preservative, was particularly effective for fruits. Olive oil also served as a preservative, especially for olives themselves. Storage methods included burying food in the ground or storing it in cool, dry places. These techniques allowed the Romans to extend the shelf life of their food.

🔶 THE JUGURTHINE WAR BEGINS “Meanwhile Calpurnius, having levied his army, chose as his lieutenants men of noble rank and strong party spirit, by whose influence he hoped that any misdeeds of his would be upheld. Among these was Scaurus, whose character and conduct I described a short time ago.⁠ For though our consul possessed many excellent qualities of mind and body, they were all nullified by avarice. He had great endurance, a keen intellect, no little foresight, considerable military experience, and a stout heart in the face of dangers and plots.  Now the legions were transported across Italy to Rhegium, from there to Sicily, from Sicily to Africa. Then Calpurnius, having provided himself with supplies, began by making a vigorous attack on the Numidians, taking many prisoners and storming several of their towns.” Sallust

🔺 REGNAL, CONSULAR, AND IMPERIAL EXPANSION. “Therefore, how much Rome has advanced under these three types of rule - that is, regnal, consular, and imperial - I shall briefly sketch. (Kingdom) Under seven kings through 243 years, Roman imperium did not advance beyond Portus and Ostia, within 18 miles from the gates of the city of Rome, seeing that she was as yet small and founded by shepherds, while neighboring cities were hemming her in. (Republic) At the same time, through 467 years under consuls, among whom there sometimes were dictators, too, Italy was occupied as far as beyond the Po, Africa was subjugated, the Spains added, and Gaul and Britain made tributaries. As for Illyricum, Histri, Libyrni, and Dalmatae were mastered; it passed to Achaea; Macedonians were subjugated; with Dardanians, Moesians, and Thracians it warred; and it reached all the way to the Danube. After Antiochus had been expelled, Romans first set foot in Asia; when Mithridates had been conquered, his kingdom was occupied; Armenia Minor, which he likewise had held, was obtained by arms; a Roman army reached Mesopotamia; a treaty was initiated with the Parthians; against Carduenians and Saracens and Arabs it warred; all of Judaea was conquered; Cilicia and Syria came into the power of the Roman people. Egypt's kings became allies. (Empire) Moreover, under the imperatores, through 407 years, while many principes were directing the diverse fortune of the state, the Maritime Alps, Cottian, Raetian, and Norican Alps, the Pannonias, and the Moesias accrued to the Roman world, and the entire bank of the Danube was reduced to provinces. All Pontus, Armenia Major, all Oriens, with Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt, passed under the jurisdiction of Roman imperium.” Festus, Breviarum

🔘 I ACCEPT THE OMEN “Paulus Aemilius, when he was a candidate for a second term as consul, failed of election. But when the war against Perseus and the Macedonians dragged on because of the inexperience and effeminacy of the generals, the people appointed him consul. But he said he owed no thanks to them; for it was not because he wanted office, but because they wanted an officer, that he was chosen general. Coming home from the Forum and finding Tertia, his little daughter, in tears, he asked the reason. And she said: "Our Perseus is dead." (It was a pet dog which had that name.) "Good luck be with me, my girl," said he; "I accept the omen." Plutarch, Sayings Of The Romans

🔵 JEWS, GERMANY, CONSTANTINE In 321, Roman Emperor Constantine issued a decree allowing Jews to be appointed to the city council (curia) of Cologne. This decree is significant as it's the earliest surviving document indicating the existence of a Jewish community north of the Alps. The exact wording of the Decree of 321 regarding Jews in Cologne is not preserved in its original form. However, it is recorded in the Codex Theodosianus, a collection of Roman laws compiled in the 5th century. Here is a partial translation of the relevant passage from the Codex Theodosianus: "We allow all city councils to appoint through general law, Jewish people in the Curia." This indicates that the decree permitted the inclusion of Jews within the curia, the governing body of the Roman city of Cologne.

🟣 STRABO ON GLASS WORKING “Then one comes to Ptolemaïs, a large city, in earlier times named Acê; this city was used by the Persians as a base of operations against Aegypt. Between Acê and Tyre is a sandy beach, which produces the sand used in making glass. Now the sand, it is said, is not fused here, but is carried to Sidon and there melted and cast. Some say that the Sidonians, among others, have the glass-sand that is adapted to fusing, though others say that any sand anywhere can be used. I heard at Alexandria from the glass-workers that there was in Aegypt a kind of vitreous earth without which many-coloured and costly designs could not be executed, just as elsewhere different countries require different mixtures; and at Rome, also, it is said that many discoveries are made both for produ­cing the colours and for facility in manufacture, as, for example, in the case of glass-ware, where one can buy a glass beaker or drinking-cup for a copper.” Strabo